Population Education Essay

It’s all about people – how the human race has grown and shaped the world around us. World population has quadrupled in the past century, changing the way we use natural resources and function as societies. Population education is the ultimate multi-disciplinary field; it’s ecology, human geography, anthropology, economics, biology, public health, sociology, environmental studies, history and civics all rolled into one, with a good bit of mathematics to help us understand where we’ve come from and where we might be headed. Population education – It’s all about people — how the human race has grown and shaped the world around us. World population has quadrupled in the past century, changing the way we use natural resources and function as societies. Population education is the ultimate multi-disciplinary field; it’s ecology, human geography, anthropology, economics, biology, public health, sociology, environmental studies, history and civics all rolled into one, with a good bit of mathematics to help us understand where we’ve come from and where we might be headed. The following are the objectives of population education. 1. To provide knowledge and understanding of the prevailing situation. 2. Create awareness among the students about population matters, environment, and supply and demand of essential commodities. 3. Provide necessary skill to evaluate the impact and consequence of population growth on society. 4. To give the knowledge of population policy and population measures. 5. To provide the knowledge of causes of population growth and government’s efforts to check it. 6. To develop awareness on the population dynamics.  7. To provide the knowledge of manpower management and resource development. 8. To enable students to know the merit of small family. 9. To known the causes of urbanization and its related problems. 10. To know about the causes of deforestation and ecological imbalance. He need of Population Education is intensely felt in recent years on the wake of unprecedented population explosion. The consequences are discussed below: 1. Increase of dependent population as about half of total populations are below 18 years. 2. Growing number of people below the poverty line.  3. Deterioration in quality of life. 4. Shortage of essential commodities. 5. Depletion of natural resources. 6. Deforestation, Ecological imbalance due to environment pollution, air pollution, water pollution. 7. Increasing slum areas due to rapid industrialization. 8. The number of unemployment on the increase. What are the Effects of population to education? Woman who have a better education want to have their children later on in life, sometimes not even having any children at all. Education can stop woman from having children. Causing the population to go down, or stay the same. What is population education? It’s all about people – how the human race has grown and shaped the world around us. World population has quadrupled in the past century, changing the way we use natural resources and function as societies. Population education is the ultimate multi-disciplinary field; it’s ecology, human geography, anthropology, economics, biology, public health, sociology, environmental studies, history and civics all rolled into one, with a good bit of mathematics to help us understand where we’ve come from and where we might be headed.

The Lust Lizard of Melancholy Cove Chapter 13

Thirteen Breakfast Somehow, through the night, the residents of Pine Cove, especially those who had been withdrawing from antidepressants, found a satisfied calm had fallen over them. It wasn't that their anxiety was gone, but rather that it ran off their backs like warm rain off a naked toddler who has just dis-covered the splash and magic of mud. There was joy and sex and danger in the air – and a euphoric need to share. Morning found many of them herding at the local restaurants for breakfast. Gathering together like wildebeests in the presence of a pride of lions, knowing instinctively that only one of them is going to fall to the fang: the one that is caught alone. Jenny Masterson had been waiting tables at H.P.'s Cafe for twelve years, and she couldn't remember a day out of the tourist season when it had been so busy. She moved between her tables like a dancer, pouring coffee and decaf, taking orders and delivering food, catching the odd request for more butter or salsa, and snatching up a dirty plate or glass on her way back to the window. No movement wasted, no customer ignored. She was good – really good – and sometimes that bugged the hell out of her. Jenny was just forty, slender and fair-skinned with killer legs and long auburn hair that she wore pinned up when she worked. With her husband Robert, she owned Brine's Bait, Tackle, and Fine Wines, but after three months of trying to work with the man she loved and after the birth of her daughter Amanda, who was five, she returned to waitressing to save her marriage and her sanity. Somewhere between college and today, she had become a bull moose waitress, and she never ceased to wonder how in the hell that had happened. How had she become the repository for local information bordering on gossip, and how had she become so damn good at picking up her customers' conversations, and following them as she moved around the restaurant? Today the restaurant was full of talk about Mikey Plotznik, who had disappeared along his paper route the day before. There was talk of the search and speculation on the kid's fate. At a few of her two-tops were seated couples who seemed intent on reliving their sexual adventures from the night before and – if the pawing and fawning were any indication – were going to resume again after breakfast. Jenny tried to tune them out. There was a table of her old-guy coffee drinkers, who were trading misinformation on politics and lawn care; at the counter a couple of construction workers intent on putting in a rare Saturday's work read the paper over bacon and eggs; and over in the corner, Val Riordan, the local shrink, was scribbling notes on a legal pad at a table all by herself. That was unusual. Dr. Val didn't normally make appearances in Pine Cove during the day. Stranger than that, Estelle Boyet, the seascape painter, was having her tea with a Black gentleman who looked as if he would jump out of his skin at the slightest touch. Jenny heard some commotion coming from the register and turned to see her busgirl arguing with Molly Michon, the Crazy Lady. Jenny made a beeline for the counter. â€Å"Molly, you're not supposed to be in here,† Jenny said calmly but firmly. Molly had been eighty-sixed for life after she had attacked H.P.'s espresso machine. â€Å"I just need to cash this check. I need to get some money to buy medicine for a sick friend.† The busgirl, a freshman at Pine Cove High, bolted into the kitchen, tossing â€Å"I told her† over her shoulder as she went. Jenny looked at the check. It was from the Social Security Administration and it was above the amount she was allowed to accept. â€Å"I'm sorry, Molly, I can't do it.† â€Å"I have photo ID.† Molly pulled a videotape out of her enormous handbag and plopped it on the counter. There was a picture of a half-naked woman tied between two stakes on the cover. The titles were in Italian. â€Å"That's not it, Molly. I'm not allowed to cash a check for that much. Look, I don't want any trouble, but if Howard sees you in here, he'll call the police.† â€Å"The police are here† came a man's voice. Jenny looked up to see Theophilus Crowe towering behind Molly. â€Å"Hi, Theo.† Jenny liked Theo. He reminded her of Robert before he had quit drinking – semitragic but good-natured. â€Å"Can I help here?† â€Å"I really need to get some money,† Molly said. â€Å"For medicine.† Jenny shot a look to the corner, where Val Riordan looked up from her notes with an expression of dread on her face. The psychiatrist obviously didn't want to be brought into this. Theo took the check gently from Molly and looked at it, then said to Jenny, â€Å"It's a government check, Jenny. I'm sure it's good. Just this once? Medicine.† He winked at Jenny from behind Molly's back. â€Å"Howard will kill me when he sees it. Every time he looks at the espresso machine, he mutters something about spawn of evil.† â€Å"I'll back you up. Tell him it was in the interest of public safety.† â€Å"Oh, okay. You're lucky we're busy today and I have the cash to spare.† Jenny handed Molly a pen. â€Å"Just endorse it.† Molly signed the check with a flourish and handed it over. Jenny counted out the bills on the counter. â€Å"Thanks,† Molly said. Then to Theo, â€Å"Thanks. Hey, you want a collector's edition of Warrior Babes?† She held the videotape out to him. â€Å"Uh, no thanks, Molly. I can't accept gratuities.† Jenny craned her neck to look at the cover of the tape. â€Å"It's in Italian, but you can figure it out,† Molly said. Theo shook his head and smiled. â€Å"Okay,† Molly said. â€Å"Gotta go.† She turned and walked out of the restaurant, leaving Theo staring at her back. â€Å"I guess she really was in movies,† Jenny said. â€Å"Did you see the picture on the cover?† â€Å"Nope,† Theo said. â€Å"Amazing. Did she look like that?† Theo shrugged. â€Å"Thanks for taking her check, Jenny. I'll find a seat. Just some coffee and an English muffin.† â€Å"Any luck finding the Plotznik kid?† Theo shook his head as he walked away. Gabe Skinner barked once to warn the Food Guy that he was about to collide with the crazy woman, but it came a little too late and, as usual, the dense but good-hearted Food Guy didn't get the message. Skinner had finally talked the Food Guy into stopping work and going to get something to eat. Catching rats and hiking around in the mud was fun, but eating was important. Gabe, covered with mud to the knees and burrs to the shoulder, was head down, digging in his backpack for his wallet as he approached H.P.'s Cafe. Coming out, Molly was counting her money, not looking at all where she was going. She heard Skinner bark just as they conked heads. â€Å"Ouch, excuse me,† Gabe said, rubbing his head. â€Å"I wasn't watching where I was going.† Skinner took the opportunity to sniff Molly's crotch. â€Å"Nice dog,† Molly said. â€Å"Did he produce B movies in his last life?† â€Å"Sorry.† Gabe grabbed Skinner by the collar and pulled him away. Molly folded her money and stuffed it into the waistband of her tights. â€Å"Hey, you're the biologist, huh?† â€Å"That's me.† â€Å"How many grams of protein in a sow bug?† â€Å"What?† â€Å"A sow bug. You know, roly-polies, pill bugs – gray, lotsa legs, designed to curl up and die?† â€Å"Yes, I know what a sow bug is.† â€Å"How many grams of protein in one?† â€Å"I have no idea.† â€Å"Could you find out?† â€Å"I suppose I could.† â€Å"Good,† Molly said. â€Å"I'll call you.† â€Å"Okay.† â€Å"Bye.† Molly ruffled Skinner's ears as she walked off. Gabe stood there for a second, distracted from his research for the first time in thirty-six hours. â€Å"What the hell?† Skinner wagged his tail to say, â€Å"Let's eat.† Dr. Val Val Riordan watched the lanky constable coming through the restaurant toward her. She wasn't ready to be official, that's why she'd taken herself out to breakfast in the first place – that and she didn't want to face her as-sistant Chloe and her newfound nymphomania. She was months, no, years behind on her professional journals, and she'd packed a briefcase full of them in hope of skimming a few over coffee before her appointments began. She tried to hide behind a copy of Pusher: The American Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacological Practice, but the constable just kept coming. â€Å"Dr. Riordan, do you have a minute?† â€Å"I suppose.† She gestured to the chair across from her. Theo sat down and dove right in. â€Å"Are you sure that Bess Leander never said anything about problems with her marriage? Fights? Joseph coming home late? Anything?† â€Å"I told you before. I can't talk about it.† Theo took a dollar out of his pocket and slid it across the table. â€Å"Take this.† â€Å"Why?† â€Å"I want you to be my therapist. I want the same patient confidentiality that you're giving Bess Leander. Even though that privilege isn't supposed to extend beyond the grave. I'm hiring you as my therapist.† â€Å"For a dollar? I'm not a lawyer, Constable Crowe. I don't have to accept you as a patient. And payment has nothing to do with it.† Val was willing him to go away. She had tried to bend people to her will since she was a child. She'd spoken to her therapist about it during her residency. Go away. â€Å"Fine, take me as a patient. Please.† â€Å"I'm not taking any new patients.† â€Å"One session, thirty seconds long. I'm your patient. I promise you'll want to hear what I have to say in session.† â€Å"Theo, have you ever addressed, well, your substance abuse problem?† It was a snotty and unprofessional thing to say, but Crowe wasn't exactly being professional either. â€Å"Does that mean I'm your patient?† â€Å"Sure, okay, thirty seconds.† â€Å"Last night I saw Joseph Leander engaging in sexual relations with a young woman in the park.† Theo folded his hands and sat back. â€Å"Your thoughts?† Jenny couldn't believe she'd heard it right. She hadn't meant to, she was just delivering an English muffin when the gossip bomb hit her unprepared. Bess Leander, not even cold in the grave, and her straitlaced Presbyterian husband was doing it with some bimbo in the park? She paused as if checking her tables, waited for a second, then slid the muffin in front of Theo. â€Å"Can I bring you anything else?† â€Å"Not right now,† Theo said. Jenny looked at Val Riordan and decided that whatever she needed right now was not on the menu. Val was sitting there wide-eyed, as if someone had slapped her with a dead mackerel. Jenny backed away from the table. She couldn't wait for Betsy to come in to relieve her for the lunch shift. Betsy always waited on Joseph Leander when he came in the cafe and made comments about him being the only guy with two children who had never been laid. She'd be blown away. Betsy, of course, already knew. Gabe Gabe tied Skinner up outside and entered the cafe to find all the tables oc-cupied. He spotted Theophilus Crowe sitting at a four-top with a woman that he didn't know. Gabe debated inviting himself to their table, then de-cided it would be better to approach Theo under the pretense of a rat news update and hope for an invitation. Gabe pulled his laptop out of his shoulder bag as he approached the table. â€Å"Theo, you won't believe what I found out last night.† Theo looked up. â€Å"Hi, Gabe. Do you know Val Riordan? She's our local psychiatrist.† Gabe offered his hand to the woman and she took it without looking away from his muddy boots. â€Å"Sorry,† Gabe said. â€Å"I've been in the field all day. Nice to meet you.† â€Å"Gabe's a biologist. He has a lab up at the weather station.† Gabe was feeling uncomfortable now. The woman hadn't said a word. She was attractive in a made-up sort of way, but she seemed a little out of things, stunned perhaps. â€Å"I'm sorry to interrupt. We can talk later, Theo.† â€Å"No, sit down. You don't mind, do you, Val? We can finish our session later. I think I still have twenty seconds on the books.† â€Å"That's fine,† Val said, seeming to come out of her haze. â€Å"Maybe you'll be interested in this,† Gabe said. He slipped into an empty chair and pushed his laptop in front of Val. â€Å"Look at this.† Like many sci-entists, Gabe was oblivious to the fact that no one gave a rat's ass about research unless it could be expressed in terms of dollars. â€Å"Green dots?† Val said. â€Å"No, those are rats.† â€Å"Funny, they look like green dots.† â€Å"This is a topographical map of Pine Cove. These are my tagged rats. See the divergence? These ten that didn't move the other night when the others did?† Val looked to Theo for an explanation. â€Å"Gabe tracks rats with microchips in them,† Theo said. â€Å"It's only one of the things I do. Mostly, I count dead things on the beach.† â€Å"Fascinating work,† Val said with no attempt to hide her contempt. â€Å"Yeah, it's great,† Gabe said. Then to Theo, â€Å"Anyway, these ten rats didn't move with the others.† â€Å"Right, you told me this. You thought they might be dead.† â€Å"They weren't, at least the six of them that I found weren't. It wasn't death that stopped them, it was sex.† â€Å"What?† â€Å"I live-trapped twenty of the group of rats that moved, but when I went to find the group that hadn't, I didn't have to trap them. There were three pairs, all engaged in coitus.† â€Å"So what made the others move?† â€Å"I don't know.† â€Å"But the other ones were, uh, mating?† â€Å"I watched one pair for an hour. They did it a hundred and seventeen times.† â€Å"In an hour? Rats can do that?† â€Å"They can, but they don't.† â€Å"But you said they did.† â€Å"It's an anomaly. But all three pairs were doing it. One of the females had died and the male was still going at her when I found them.† Theo's face was becoming strained with the effort of trying to figure out what in the hell Gabe was trying to tell him, and why he was telling him in the first place. â€Å"What does that mean?† â€Å"I have no idea,† Gabe said. â€Å"I don't know why there was a mass evacuation of the large group, and I don't know why the smaller group stayed in one place copulating.† â€Å"Well, thanks for sharing.† â€Å"Food and sex,† Gabe said. â€Å"Maybe you should eat something, Gabe.† Theo signaled for the waitress. â€Å"What do you mean, food and sex?† Val asked. â€Å"All behavior is related to obtaining food and sex,† Gabe said. â€Å"How Freudian.† â€Å"No, Darwinian, actually.† Val leaned forward and Gabe caught a whiff of her perfume. She actually seemed interested now. â€Å"How can you say that? Behavior is much more complex than that.† â€Å"You think so?† â€Å"I know so. And whatever this is, this radio rat study of yours proves it.† She swiveled the screen of the laptop so they all could see it. â€Å"You have six rats that were engaged in sex, but if I have this straight, you have, well, a lot of rats that just took off for no reason at all. Right?† â€Å"There was a reason, I just don't know it yet.† â€Å"But it wasn't food and it obviously wasn't sex.† â€Å"I don't know yet. I suppose they could have been exposed to television violence.† Theo was sitting back and watching now, enjoying two people with three decades of education between them puffing up like schoolyard bullies. â€Å"I'm a psychiatrist, not a psychologist. Our discipline has moved more toward physiological causes for behavior over the last thirty years, or hadn't you heard?† Val Riordan was actually grinning now. â€Å"I'm aware of that. I'm having the brain chemistry worked up on animals from both groups to see if there's a neurochemical explanation.† â€Å"How do you do that again?† Theo asked. â€Å"You grind up their brains and analyze the chemicals,† Gabe said. â€Å"That's got to hurt,† Theo said. Val Riordan laughed. â€Å"I only wish I could diagnose my patients that way. Some of them anyway.† Val Val Riordan couldn't remember the last time she'd enjoyed herself, but she suspected it was when she'd attended the Neiman-Marcus sale in San Francisco two years ago. Food and sex indeed. This guy was so naive. But still, she hadn't seen anyone so passionate about pure research since med school, and it was nice to think about psychiatry in terms other than finan-cial. She found herself wondering how Gabe Fenton would look in a suit, after a shower and a shave, after he'd been boiled to kill the parasites. Not bad, she thought. Gabe said, â€Å"I can't seem to identify any outside stimulus for this behavior, but I have to eliminate the possibility that it's something chemical or envir-onmental. If it's affecting the rats, it might be affecting other species too. I've seen some evidence of that.† Val thought about the wave of horniness that seemed to have washed over all of her patients in the last two days. â€Å"Could it be in the water, do you think? Something that might affect us?† â€Å"Could be. If it's chemical, it would take longer to affect a mammal as large as a human. You two haven't seen anything unusual in the last few days, have you?† Theo nearly spit his coffee out. â€Å"This town's a bug-house.† â€Å"I'm not allowed to talk about my patients specifically,† Val said. She was shaken. Of course there was some weird behavior. She'd caused it, hadn't she, by taking fifteen hundred people off of their medication at once? She had to get out of here. â€Å"But in general, Theo is right.† â€Å"I am?† Theo said. â€Å"He is?† Gabe said. Jenny had returned to the table to fill their coffees. â€Å"Sorry I overheard, but I'd have to agree with Theo too.† They all looked at her, then at each other. Val checked her watch. â€Å"I've got to get to an appointment. Gabe, I'd like to hear the results of the brain chemistry test.† â€Å"You would?† â€Å"Yes.† Val put some money on the table and Theo picked it up and handed it back to her, along with the dollar he'd put there earlier for her fee. â€Å"I need to talk to you about that other matter, Val.† â€Å"Call me. I don't know if I can help though. Bye.† Val left the cafe actually looking forward to seeing her patients, if for no other reason than to imagine grinding up each of their brains. Anything to address the responsibility of driving an entire town crazy. But perhaps by driving them a little crazy, she could save some of them from self-destruction: not a bad reason for going to work. Gabe â€Å"I've got to go too,† Theo said, standing up. â€Å"Gabe, should I have the county test the water or something? I have to go into San Junipero to the county building today anyway.† â€Å"Not yet. I can do a general toxins and heavy metals test. I do them all the time for the frog population studies.† â€Å"You wanna walk out with me?† â€Å"I have to order something to go for Skinner.† â€Å"Didn't you say that you had ten rats that diverged from the pack?† â€Å"Yes, but I could only find six.† â€Å"What happened to the other four?† â€Å"I don't know. They just disappeared. Funny, these chips are nearly indestructible too. Even if the animals are dead, I should be able to pick them up with the satellites.† â€Å"Out of range maybe?† â€Å"Not a chance, the coverage is over two hundred miles. More if I look for them.† â€Å"Then where did they go?† â€Å"They last showed up down by the creek. Near the Fly Rod Trailer Court.† â€Å"You're kidding. That's where the Plotznik kid was last seen.† â€Å"You want to see the map?† â€Å"No, I believe you. I've got to go.† Theo turned to leave. Gabe caught him by the shoulder. â€Å"Theo, is, uh†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"What?† â€Å"Is Val Riordan single?† â€Å"Divorced.† â€Å"Do you think she likes me?† Theo shook his head. â€Å"Gabe, I understand. I spend too much time alone too.† â€Å"What? I was just asking.† â€Å"I'll see you.† â€Å"Hey, Theo, you look, uh, well, more alert today.† â€Å"Not stoned, you mean?† â€Å"Sorry, I didn't mean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"It's okay, Gabe. Thanks, I think.† â€Å"Hang tough.† Jenny As Jenny passed Estelle Boyet's table, she heard the old Black gentleman say, â€Å"We don't need to tell nobody nothin'. Been fifty years since I seen that thing. It probably done gone back to the sea.† â€Å"Still,† Estelle said, â€Å"there's a little boy missing. What if the two are connected?† â€Å"Ain't nobody ever called you a crazy nigger, did they?† â€Å"Not that I can remember.† â€Å"Well, they have me. For some twenty years after I talked about that thing the last time. I ain't sayin' nothin' to no one. It's our secret, girl.† â€Å"I like it when you call me girl,† Estelle said. Jenny went off to the kitchen, trying to put the morning together in her mind, pieces of conversations as surreal as a Dali jigsaw puzzle. There was definitely something going on in Pine Cove.

What was the impact of Soviets and American policies on the Middle Essay

What was the impact of Soviets and American policies on the Middle East - Essay Example The impact is usually characterised as the Israeli-Arab conflict which is not only attributed to super and world power intervention during the Second World War, but perpetuated and exacerbated by US and Soviet intervention during the Cold War Era (Azar, Jureidini & McLaurin, 1978). During the period from the Second World War to the end of the Cold War, the Middle East has been a cauldron of tensions and conflicts with major conflicts primarily concentrated around the Israeli-Arab conflict (Shlaim, 1996). Using the balance of power theory, this paper will analyse how and to what extent US and Soviet policies in the Middle East produced and/or contributed to these conflicts. These conflicts are arguably the main impact of US and Soviet policies in the Middle East. The classical balance of power theory argues that states align their allies and interests in the creation of an international system that ensures that no state is possessed of â€Å"overwhelming power† or dominancy over other states (Chatterjee, 1972, p. 51). The modified version of the balance of power theory is more appropriate to studies of Soviet and US relations and their policies in the Middle East. In this modified version of the balance of power theory, each of the super powers aligned their allies and interest in the Middle East as a means of preventing the spread and influence of the other super power in the region and globally (Walt, 1985). Under the modified version of the balance of power theory, competing states respond to one another in that when one state pursues hegemony aggressively through alignment with other states, the competing state will attempt to match that aggressive alignment (Walt, 1985). The US and the Soviet Union persistently attempted to â€Å"balance against aggregate power† (Walt, 1985, p. 35). As Walt (1985) explained, the US and the USSR saw each other as the â€Å"other’s greatest potential threat† and devoted their

The pro's for teenage girls getting the new HPV vaccine Essay

The pro's for teenage girls getting the new HPV vaccine - Essay Example Of the more than 100 types of HPV, more than 30 types can be passed from one person to another through sexual contact† (National Cancer Institute, 2008). It stands to reason, then, that if a vaccine is to be effective, it must be administered before or shortly after a young woman becomes sexually active. There have been numerous arguments brought up against using the vaccine, but a coherent look into its advantages clearly indicates the positive significantly outweighs the negatives. To begin with, the virus has proven to be effective against some of the more dangerous strains of HPV. â€Å"Studies have found the vaccine to be almost 100 percent effective in preventing diseases caused by the four HPV types covered by the vaccine – including pre-cancers of the cervix, vulva and vagina and genital warts† (Division of STD Prevention, 2006). Together, these four strains of HPV are thought to cause approximately 70 percent of cervical cancers and 90 percent of genital warts. â€Å"The vaccine covers types 6 and 11, which are thought to be responsible for more than 95 percent of genital warts cases, and types 16 and 18, which are believed to be responsible for more than 70 percent of cervical cancer cases† (Dempsey cited in University of Michigan Health System, 2007). One of the main complaints against new vaccines is commonly concerns regarding the safety of the ‘cure’. In the case of the HPV vaccine, â€Å"the FDA has licensed the HPV vaccine as safe and effective. This vaccine has been tested in over 11,000 females (ages 9-26 years old) around the world. These studies have shown no serious side effects† (Division of STD Prevention, 2006). By comparison, â€Å" In the United States there are about 10,000 new cases of cervical cancer each year and around 4,000 deaths from the disease† (â€Å"A Vaccine Expert†, 2007). By providing the cure long before the behavior, many girls’ lives

Childrens Literature Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Childrens Literature Interview - Essay Example I've never a full count of them, but my estimate would be that I personally own at least 150 different children's books. That includes picture books as well as reading books. Most of them are display in various locations around my classroom simply because I think it does children so much value just to actually see books because they may not have any at home. Especially the kids who come to my school because we live in a low-income area where 95% the students throughout the school qualify for free lunch. Since they are kindergarteners, most of the books they actually pick up are picture books or have limited vocabulary. A: Well, our school instituted a mandatory two hour reading block for all grades. Obviously, the way this is conducted in kindergarten is different from the higher grades. Much of our reading time is spent in reading groups, actually. We have some computer programs and we have worksheets, but I always try to spend at least half the time with actual books in their hands. The terrific thing about the level of children's books I use in kindergarten is that after seven years I have memorized quite a bit of them. Verse books especially. This allows me to actually watch them as they get stuck on a word while I am following along in my head. Q: If you've memorized some of the books and you have over one-hundred of them, I would imagine that would mean there are some favorites that get read every single year What kind of books are favored among kindergarteners in the 21st century A: The doctor never fails. Dr. Seuss is just as popular now as ever. It might be the verbal play and silly words, but at the same time they enjoy books about Charlie Brown and the "If you give a" series. Of course, when it comes to having kids actually looking through a book on their desk, you can't beat Eric Carle. Q: As an educator, why do you think Dr. Seuss is as popular in 2008 as he was in 1968 A: I may be the wrong person to ask. Quite evidently, the rhymes and the made-up words appeal to kids. Dr. Seuss is fun to listen to and the illustrations obviously have great appeal. Any book with humorous drawings is a guaranteed hit among kindergarteners. But I think my particular experiences with Dr. Seuss may differ from others. Q: Could others learn from your experience Do you think this experience with Dr. Seuss is something that could be translated into a standard lesson plan or curricula A: The way I deal with rhyming books and Seuss in general is not something that I would consider standardizing. You have to have a flair for the dramatic and even a certain willingness to kind of make a fool of yourself, I guess. The language and fun and humor of Seuss in particular, but most kindergarten-level rhyming book in general, may appeal to contemporary students even more than students in 1968 or 1988. The rhythm of these books is instantly recognizable to most of my students, and probably every American student, as a form of rap. So, even though I'm not a fan of rap music or consider myself a great rapper, I know I can reach these students by turning Dr. Seuss into a rap song. Any

The impact of the internet on speeches or debates in campaigns Essay

The impact of the internet on speeches or debates in campaigns - Essay Example All these debates are live telecasting by the television and internet media. Many people have the belief or myth that only the opinions expressed by the presidential candidate have the power to influence the public opinion. According to Postman (2005), â€Å"Indeed we may have reached the point where the cosmetics has replaced ideology as the field of expertise over which a politician must have competent control†(Postman, 2005, p.4). In other words, the appearance and body languages of the speaker can influence the public immensely. Internet is a medium in which people often discuss the appearance, views and opinions expressed by the candidates. The outcomes of these debates may definitely influence the result of the election. This paper analyses the impact of the internet on speeches or debates in campaigns. Internet and campaigns â€Å"The idea that there is a content called â€Å"the news of the day† was entirely created by the telegraph which made it possible to de contextualized information over vast spaces at incredible speeds† (Postman, 2005, p.8). Instant communication is made possible with the introduction of internet. It is easy for a person in America to communicate with a person in India or Africa instantly using different means of internet based communication. For example, social networks are influencing the people immensely. According to a recent report, Facebook membership has already crossed 1000000000. It should be noted that these people are communicating each other through social networks and exchange their ideas about everything in this world. The use of discussion forums, weblogs (commonly known as blogs), and online discussion groups, allow ongoing dialogues between the candidate, campaign staff, volunteers, and supporters. The Internet’s virtual nature enhances the number and diversity of people participating in campaign discussions, creating â€Å"global conversations that previously would have occurred only i n local groups and conferences (Rice, 2004, p.4) The ongoing political debates between president Obama and his opponent Mitt Romney is watched anxiously by millions of the people all over the world. The recent debate between President Obama and his Republican Party opponent Mitt Romney, about the economic policies of America has been watched with interest by Americans as well as the people in other parts of the world. Reports show that Romney gained an upper hand over Obama after this debate. Plenty of debates are going to happen between these two contesters in near future itself. â€Å"One-third of online adults (33%) say that it is usually easy for them to tell what it true from what is false when it comes to the political information they find online, while 56% say that it is usually difficult for them to determine this† (Attitudes towards the internet’s impact on politics, 2010). One of the major advantages of communication through internet is the ability to stay a nonymous. Internet is a medium through which the unspoken truth and rumours can be spread without fear. For example, it is possible for an Obama fan or a democrat to work against Obama using internet. In fact thousands of political workers are working for their candidate through internet and social networks. These political workers are spreading truths as well as myths or rumours. In politics, only opponents are there

Business and Management Research Methodology Essay

Business and Management Research Methodology - Essay Example scheduling the research workload and activities over a stipulated period and being flexible enough to make alterations in it when problems occur; vii. constructing and sustaining the research argument through a long document without resorting to long descriptions that are not embedded in the structure of the argument; viii writing and understanding the purpose of an introduction, a conclusion and an abstract for an academic document; ix writing clearly and imaginatively, and with a sense of authority; and x. using an appropriate referencing system. In order to conduct research in terms of the above mentioned requirements, the work involved may include: the development of an appropriate and interesting research topic; reading the relevant and other appropriate literature; specifying the method adopted for the research; collection or selection of the required data; analysis and interpretation of the data and finally writing up the dissertation as the end product. Deciding on the research topic takes a good deal of time, thought and discussion. In deciding on it, the best help is discussion with the research guide and other faculty members, one's colleagues, journal articles which may point out 'further areas of research', doctoral thesis reading which would give ideas of extending or disagreeing with the thesis propounded in the research thesis. The preliminary reading will not only be useful for choosing the topic but will also be helpful for writing a literature review for the project later on. So careful notes should be kept at every stage. Readings can include article summaries from Abstracts. Label the notes so that somebody else could read and understand them. This should mean that the researcher too, understand them when they are read again. A research statement turns the original ideas into something that can be researched. (Kumar 1996) Research Project After the preliminary readings, the research a proposal has to be formulated. A good way to prepare a research project is to include the categories of the research proposal as the project itself. There should be a proposed title or an initial short statement about what is proposed to be done. The introduction could be shorter than in the research thesis. But it should explain: why is this work is being done what problems are being investigated what questions will the researcher ask what other research is relevant to the work The methodology may be described, but it could be tentative if, at this stage a final decision about the methods of investigation and analysis would not have been made. But describe a range of possibilities that are being considered and how the information collected will be analyzed. A research proposal should also include a rough timetable as to when the different stages of the work are planned to be carried out. Timetable the Research and Report The researcher will have to be able carry out the research work and write it up by the deadline indicated in the

Compare and contrast between the philosophical thoughts of Booker T Essay - 2

Compare and contrast between the philosophical thoughts of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Dubois - Essay Example An educator, Washington believed that blacks should stabilize their future by becoming indispensable members in the society. The only way to become indispensable in the society is by providing a necessity to the society through education. Washington’s early childhood was in slavery forcing him to seek industrial education at Hampton. Washington was a strong supporter on industrial education. Most of Washington’s philosophies were familiar with the southern blacks because he came from the south. Washington believes that the black community should not agitate for voting and civil rights not only for economic gains and security, but they should also fight for anti-black violence (Karenga 154). Washington’s popularity also increased among the northern whites and later, among the southern whites who perceived the philosophies as complete surrender and self-uplift. Most of Washington’s philosophies were based on prior experience with slavery On the contrary, W.E. DuBois grew up in a slavery-free society in the north. DuBois did not experience the harsh realities of slavery or prejudice present in the south. DuBois grew in a predominantly white environment. Unlike Washington, DuBois felt that the equality between the white community and the African Americans was the most important thing. More politically militant than Washington, DuBois aired his political view through political movements, associations, and political magazines. DuBois felt believed that black people should get the same liberal education the white community gets. As such DuBois ideas regarding education were crucial in shaping education among African American people (Rabaka 735). The biggest philosophical disagreement between the two leaders regarded black suffrage. Regarding voting, DuBois supported the agitation for the ballot and opposed voting among uneducated black people. According to DuBois, economic gains were not important without

Women like Chanel Bags Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Women like Chanel Bags - Essay Example In a period when luxury products have been the subject of intensive discussion and debate, current consumers are willing to offer considerably higher amounts of money for luxury products as a display of a particular product brings prestige to the owner apart from the functional utility. Luxury items are becoming a necessity as more than 51 percent women in Tokyo purchase Chanel bags. It is further important to mention that luxury consumption is influenced by factors such as brand image, quality, fashion, store atmosphere and patron status. There are contrasting views from Vigneron and Johnson who believe that categorization of luxury products, hedonist and perfectionists are more interested in pleasure derived from the use of luxury products and less interested in price rather than the quality of product, and its performance which leaves the debate open for discussion whether luxury products are bought for quality or just for the sake of prestige. The market for a luxury product is increasing with increasing income among the middle and high society which forces the manufacturers to provide fashionable items to its consumers which are durable and utilized optimally. Schroeder (1291) mentioned that typical turns in an art, artists, and aesthetics in management and marketing often involve ill-defined groping for innovation, creativity or play. The viability of a fashion brand is dependent upon the efficacy and appropriateness of the decisions of those responsible for its management.

Marketing Exam Question (Marketing Mix) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing Exam Question (Marketing Mix) - Essay Example So what is market segmentation? Consumers differ and they â€Å"place differing degrees of importance on the individual elements of the marketing mix.† â€Å"They differ not only in the price they will pay, but in a wide range of benefits they expect from the product and its method of delivery. As a result, the market becomes split into several segments.† (SBDC, 2005) SBDC, (2005) argued that understanding the concept of segmentation is central to marketing because each different customer group will require a different marketing mix strategy and that each segment will offer differing growth and profit opportunities so the trick is to deliver the best offer to the best segment. Assuming now that there is market segmentation, it is now easier to answer the question how to have differential advantage. SBDC, 2005 advised saying: â€Å"Differential advantage can be obtained via almost any element of the marketing mix - creating a superior product, more attractive designs, better service, more effective distribution, better advertising and so on. These are actually the three P’s which include the Product (creating a superior product, more attractive designs, better service), Place (more effective distribution) and Promotion (better advertising) The key is to understand that the advantage must be based on research into what customers really value and that the differential is developed after due consideration of competitive strategies and offers. (Emphasis supplied). With the three P’s strategically combined, the fourth P, which is Price, would be easier to handle. In fact the purpose of the differential advantage is to avoid mere competition based on price, because the customers look at the four P’s as four C’s. These four C’s include cost to the customer for price, convenience for place, communication for promotion and customer needs and wants for product. It must be noted that knowing what

Code of Ethics Comparison Essay Example for Free

Code of Ethics Comparison Essay Differences and similarities were described in the Code of Ethics of the American Counseling Association and the American Association of Christian Counselors. The two codes are comparable in many ways. The American Association of Christian Counselors focus on the Christian aspect and the American Counseling Association is based on world views. It is important to understand that counselors should not impose their personal values on clients, however religion mainly consist of beliefs that individuals adapt and practice. All counselors should remain subtle when providing services clients and allow them to make the decision if they choose to adopt a certain value or religious belief to help them cope with life. The general similarities of the ethic codes American Counseling Association and American Association of Christian Counselors consists of providing help to clients who are in a crisis situation. According to the text, The ACA AACC codes both encourage client growth and development which fosters healthy relationships. They both seek to avoid harm and personal values when assisting clients. They both inform clients of informed consent and protect clients to earn their trust so that they can create an ongoing partnership, by maintaining confidentiality. They both find it important to maintain trust in awareness of sensitivity regarding cultural diversity. Both ACA AACC respect the rights of privacy of their clients (Corey, G, Corey M Callanan, 2011, pg. 94). I feel it is essential for all counselors to understand a client’s cultural background, religious belief and values to effectively provide appropriate care when making decisions. This information will allow counselors to make better informed decisions and build a stronger partnership. According to the text, both ACA AACC maintain records to ensure clients are provided with the best service which allows the counselor to maintain a continuity record for future sessions (Corey, G, Corey M Callanan, 2011, pg. 173). The differences in the two ethics codes consist of the following: According to the American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC) mission is to bring honor to Jesus Christ and his church, promote excellence in Christian counseling, and bring unity to Christian counselors. A more detailed and behavior-specific ethical code is needed for Christian counselors simply because of incompetent services among Christian counselors, unprotected legal status, and the vitality and growing maturity of Christian counseling. This code shows four streams of influence which include the bible; standards of Christian counseling and the established mental health disciplines; Christian and mental health professions; current and developing standards derived from mental health and ministry-related law. According to the text, Christian counselors should maintain the highest standards of competence with integrity. Christian counselors are viewed truthful, educated, and experienced. Christian counselors do not disrespect other professional counselors, mental health professionals (Clinton Ohlschlager, 2012, pg. 264). Comparing and contrast duties to client and to the Profession According to the American Association of Christian Counselors, Christian counselors will protect clients and do no harm which is the first rule of professional-ministerial ethical conduct. Christian counselors will express a loving care to any client, service-inquiring person, or anyone encountered in the course of practice or ministry, without regard to race, ethnicity, gender sexual behavior or orientation, socio-economic status, education, denomination, belief system, values or political affiliation. Christian counselors acknowledge that client conflicts are unavoidable. Christian counselors take proper action against the harmful behavior of other counselors and pastors. Clients will be protected against harm and danger wherever it is found. Christian counselors refuse to condone or advocate for abortion and the abortion-related activities of clients. All counselors will consider and inform clients of alternative means to abortion and as far as it is possible, will continue to serve clients and work compassionately with them through the abortion crisis. According to the American Association of Christian Counselors, Compared to other professionals, Christian counselors refuse to condone or advocate for the pursuit of or active involvement in homosexual, transgendered, and cross-dressing behavior, and in the adoption gay lesbian transgendered lifestyles by clients. Christian counselors will not advocate for or support clients who wish to die due to medical reasons, or support the use of drugs to be utilized to end a life. The death of a patient may occur however, initiating action to end a terminally ill patient’s pain is unethical. According to the American Association of Christian Counselors, Christian counselors do not provide counseling to close family or friends due to the conflict of interest. They presume that dual relations with other family members, acquaintances, and fraternal, club, association, or group members are potentially troublesome and best avoided. Often times, family and friends may get offended when offering professional assistance. Christian counselors along with other counselors will secure client consent for all counseling and related services. This may include video/audio taping of client sessions, the use of supervisory and consultative help, the application of special procedures and evaluations, and the communication of client data. According to the text, Christian counselors may refer clients who are beyond their ability or scope of practice or when consultation is inappropriate, unavailable, or unsuccessful. Referrals should be coordinated after the client is provided with informed choices of referrals (Clinton Ohlschlager, 2012, pg. 264). According to the American Association of Christian Counselors, Christian counselors are encouraged, beyond their fee schedule, to make a portion of their time and services available without cost or at greatly reduced fee to those who are unable to pay. On the other hand, counselors may not provide services to clients without some form of payment. Often times, Christian counselors enjoy what they do and may avoid financial practices that could result in greed. Christian counselors feel negative toward high fees and prolonged treatment for monetary gains. According to the text, Christian counselors do not withhold services to anyone of a different faith, religion, denomination, or value system. It is essential for Christian counselors as ell as other counselors to understand the client’s belief system and cultural background in order to provide the best care possible (Clinton Ohlschlager, 2012, pg. 273). Christian counselors should not impose their personal values however support the client’s values in a professional manner. It is important to understand that Christian counselors do not abandon clients. Services should never abruptly end without sufficient notice and proper notification for termination or referral.

Game console industry Essay Example for Free

Game console industry Essay Provide an overview of the company. Include any information you think is pertinent to this company (5 points) Nintendo is a company that creates video games and game consoles. Nintendo is the creator of the Game Boy, Super Nintendo, Nintendo DS, Nintendo 64, Nintendo GameCube and of course the Wii. Nintendo is only one of the few companies that create gaming systems, and is in constant competition with Sony (PlayStation) and Microsoft (Xbox). Nintendo’s revenues in 2009 were $19,308. 1 million, with a net income of ,930. 8 million. 1. What are the defining business and economic characteristics of the video game console industry? What is the industry like? (10 points) Sales of video game consoles, software, and accessories reached a record high of $23. 1 billion in 2008. Despite the increasing intensity of competition, the video gaming industry as a whole had continued to grow through the end of 2008 in the face of the downturn in the general world economy. 2. What is competition like in the video game console industry? Do a five-forces analysis to support your answer. Complete the following as part of your answer. Make sure to explain the reasons for your answers. (10 points) a. The bargaining power and leverage of buyers is a low competitive force b. The bargaining power and leverage of suppliers is a low competitive force. c. Competition from substitutes is a high competitive force. d. Threat of entry is a low competitive force. e. Rivalry among competing video game console producers is a high competitive force. Overall assessment: 3. What forces are driving changes in the video game console industry? Are these driving forces acting to make the industry more or less competitively intense? Are the driving forces acting to make the industry more or less profitable in future years? (10 points) 4. What is Nintendo’s strategy? Which of the five generic strategies discussed is Nintendo using? What are some of the recent offensive and/or defensive strategies that Nintendo has employed? Have these tactics been successful? (10 points) 5. How well is Nintendo’s strategy working in terms of the financial performance it is delivering? Should shareholders be pleased? Why or why not? What 2-3 weaknesses do you see in Nintendo’s financial performance? (15 points) |Performance Ratio |2009 |2008 |2007 |2006 |2005 | |Revenue Growth |16. 61% |73% |89. 79% |-1. 11% |n/a | |Gross Profit Margin |. 43 |. 42 |. 41 |. 42 |. 42 | |Operating Profit Margin |. 30 |. 29 |. 23 |. 18 |. 22 | |Return on Assets |25% |24% |18% |14% |13% | |Return on Equity |. 13 |. 14 |. 18 |. 24 |. 25 | 6. What does a SWOT analysis reveal about the attractiveness of Nintendo’s overall situation? Is the company’s competitive position as solid as top management seems to believe? Does the company have a competitive advantage? If so, what is the basis for this competitive advantage and is the advantage sustainable? (10 points) Nintendo’s Resource Strengths and Competitive Capabilities Nintendo’s Internal Resource Weaknesses and Competitive Liabilities Nintendo’s External Opportunities Nintendo’s External Threats 7. What does a competitive strength assessment reveal about whether Nintendo has a competitive edge? Complete the chart as part of your answer. You are to determine the success factors you deem most important. (20 points) |Key Success Factors |Importance Weight | Nintendo | Sony | Microsoft | | | |Rating Score |Rating Score |Rating Score8. What recommendations would you make to Nintendo to improve its competitiveness in the video game console industry and to maintain its favorable positioning vis-a-vis Microsoft and Sony? (10 points).

Walmart: Internal and External Analysis

Walmart: Internal and External Analysis Founded in 1962 by Sam Walton, Wal-Mart Stores Inc. is one of the pioneers of discount retailing, along with Kmart and Target. Wal-Mart in US has been solely responsible for selling 35 per cent of all pet food, 24 per cent of all toothpaste, the largest volume of jewellery, groceries, DVDs, CDs, toys, guns, diapers, sporting goods, bedding and much, much more (Ramaswamy, 2004 cited in Hanson, 2008, p. 580-581). The companys success has resulted in many constantly observing it for new wisdom on management and strategy. But the recent years proved to be challenging for Wal-Mart as analysts are doubtful of the companys ability to maintain the pace of growth that it has shown in the previous years. Wal-Mart has to face competition from big players like Carrefour, Metro and Tesco as well as new entrants such as Dollar General. Besides that, Wal-Mart has taken advantage of its massive base of power to force suppliers to do more for less. Employees are also dissatisfied with the companys lack of employee welfare. External Environment Wal-Mart is one of the major players in the retailer industry. It has its own store brands in addition to selling the national brands in US. Being the main retailer in US, it has garnered enough power to negotiate the prices with the suppliers. Recently, it has an image issue due to the lawsuits it is facing, the loss of jobs indirectly linked to it as well as the declaration of bankruptcy or the shutting down of many retailers and manufacturer. Sociological Factors The giant retailer has been accused of paying its employees as low as US$8.23 which amounted being below the federal poverty line for a family of three. The company has also been sued for forcing its employees to work overtime for free. Another lawsuit against Wal-Mart is about the discrimination of women in top management. While about 90 per cent of Wal-Mart associates are women, only 15 per cent are in the top management positions. It is also suggested that Wal-Mart may be hiring illegal immigrants in violation of the law. Ethical Factors Wal-Mart is such a powerful company that its decisions will have a direct impact on all its suppliers and might even result in them filing for bankruptcy or shutting down, causing thousands to lose their jobs. In an ethical way, the retailer does not weigh the consequences or try to reduce the impact as long as the decision is beneficial to itself. Industry Environment Potential Threats of Substitutes Small -scale retailers such as Dollar General which catered to the low-income customers are proving to be among the companies that Wal-Mart needs to be wary of. While the target market seems to be the fastest growing segments of the population in US, the suppliers are also generally satisfied working with Dollar General, as compared to Wal-Mart and its suppliers. Intensity of Rivalry (International Market) Penetrating into the international market has been quite difficult for Wal-Mart because it is not as powerful and reputable as it is in US, unlike the major international players such as Carrefour, Metro and Tesco. There are more competitors that Wal-Mart has to face in the international market. Competitor Current Strategies Competitors like Carrefour are using their longer experience in the international market to their advantage. Carrefour has been accused of leaning on suppliers to choke Wal-Marts supply lines. Another strategy Carrefour employs is to demonstrate a new variation of the Everyday Low Price where its employees are found in Wal-Marts parking lots to distribute fliers, showing price comparisons with the prices at Wal-Mart at an almost real-time basis. Assumptions Major retail players like Carrefour and Tesco believe that they have the upper-hand in the international market as they are more experienced and understand the markets better. Besides that, they already have established reputations among the suppliers and will be more credible as a retailer as compared to Wal-Mart. Internal Environment Reputation with Customers By providing low prices for customers especially those living in the rural areas, many are grateful that they can save up. In addition, Wal-Mart has become so powerful that it is able to sell well-known brands at lower prices and thus proving the superior value it brings to its customers. Capabilities Wal-Mart is equipped with first-hand information about consumer preference data by having suppliers to attach remote frequency devices (RFID) technology in all their packaging to track individual items sold in the store. To improve efficiency of all business transactions with the suppliers, Wal-Marts suppliers also have to an electronic data interchange (EDI) called Retail Link that will track all business transactions with the giant retailer. Core Competency In the recent years, most of the sales of more than 30,000 suppliers are done through Wal-Mart and this puts the retailer in a very favourable position for negotiation of the prices of the products. With great foresight about the retail industry, the company is always ahead of the rest especially in terms of efficiency and delivering its promise to its customers. Stakeholders of Wal-Mart Suppliers The suppliers have become over- reliant on Wal-Mart and need the retailer more than the retailer needs them. Thus when Wal-Mart is determining the prices and thus drawing out significant price concessions from its suppliers, they are willing to comply and absorb any additional prices to make the giant retailer appease. Besides that, the suppliers also have to meet the terms set by Wal-Mart, such as the automated technology demands to have the Retail Link for their business dealings with Wal-Mart and the RFID technology in all their packaging. Suppliers are also expected to show up just when they are needed in the case of deliveries as they will be due for payment for any delivery that they miss or delay. Employees Employees have sued Wal-Mart for numerous reasons, showing their dissatisfactions with the company. Wal-Mart has been accused of making the employees work overtime without any allowance, paying low wages and involved in unfair labour practice against women in separate occasions. SWOT (S)trengths Has its own logistics as well as its own trucks and a private satellite A systematic and controlled management practice with the suppliers First-hand data about customer preference, more insight into the target market (W)eaknesses Wal-Marts image problem where the supplier are intimidated by it Ignores price increase- resulted in the suppliers shutting down, be forced into a merger/ transfer the production overseas Indirectly linked to thousands losing their jobs (O)pportunities Wal-Mart as a willing teacher, constantly educating the suppliers with new technique to tackle cost control and efficiency more would be ready to work with it (T)hreats Unreliable employees because of how they are treated by Wal-Mart Upstart chains like Dollar General contesting Wal-Marts position in the US retail market Review of Present Situation Though Wal-Mart is a powerful retailer in US and around the world, it does not maintain a positive image with its suppliers and the public. It may be looked upon in cases where people analyse its success but people may remember the negative aspects of the company better. Recommendations Create a positive image of Wal-Mart To avoid being blamed for all the jobs lost when a supplier could not live up to Wal-Marts expectations, the retailer should try to such situations whenever it can. For example, it could compromise with a supplier regarding the prices of the stocks when the prices increase. Other than that, it can donate to charitable organisations as a way of showing that the retailer also cares and gives back to the society. Wal-Mart could also create a fund to aid jobless people until they get another job. Gain employees loyalty References Ramaswamy, K. (2004). Wal-Mart Stores Inc.: Dominating Global Retailing. In D. Hanson, P. J. Dowling, M. A. Hitt, R. D. Ireland R. E. Hoskisson (Eds.) Strategic Management: Competitiveness Globalisation (pp. 577-590). Australia: Cengage Learning Australia. Tsao, A. (2003, September 26). Wal-Marts Stock: No Bargain Here. BusinessWeek Online. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/sep2003/nf20030929_9676_db014.htm What Influenced Georgian Style and its Features? What Influenced Georgian Style and its Features? Introduction Georgian style is a style in the architecture, interior design, and decorative arts of Britain during the 17th and 18th centuries. The term â€Å"Georgian† gets its name from four kings of England who reigned in Britain from 1714-1830. All of them were named George. (DesignIntuit, 2001) Although the George did not have an impact on the style, they perpetuated a movement that is different from the popular Italian and French Baroque style. â€Å"Georgian is a term usually associated in the popular mind with refined furniture, elegant clothes, buildings of deceptive simplicity, classical music, decorous prose, and country houses set in pleasing parks.† (Georgian Housestyle, Ingrid Cranfield). In essence, Georgian is not a style by itself, but an era during that many developments and changes happened in both architecture and interior design. (Worldguide, 2015) Early Georgian style: Influence of classicism Each architect or designer has his own ideas and individual approach. However, all of them had something common: they were heavily influenced by elements of ancient Rome and Greece. In other words, they were driven by the same motivated idea: to recreate the antique classical world. Classicism was considered as godlike: it reproduced the building blocks of God’s creation and the accords of nature. Furthermore, this (Georgian) period is defined as â€Å"an era of refined neoclassical trends†. (Worldguide, 2015) As it was mentioned earlier, the Georgian style was highly influenced by classicism. Young British aristocrats (including architects, designers and furniture makers) in the 17th and 18th centuries took the â€Å"Grand Tour† of European countries. These â€Å"Grand Tours† made the influential classes follow classical traditions of architecture and design. However, the Baroque used classical ornamentation and decor in a very open ended way. (David Ross, 2015) However, the British employed these motifs in an inflexible and calm way. (Worldguide, 2015) If Baroque is too much, Georgian classicism is a grace. Early Georgian style: Influence of Palladinism Besides classicism, there was another style that had a very strong impact on the Georgian style. It is a Palladinism, â€Å"a philosophy of design based on the writings and work of Andreas Palladio†. (David Ross, 2015) He is an Italian architect of the 16th century who recreated the design and proportions of the buildings of antique Rome. (Worldguide, 2015) Famous English architect Inigo Jones brought the Georgian style to Britain in the 17th century. (Worldguide, 2015) Palladinism was a significant factor in the early Georgian style. There was a proportion-based Palladian school of design that dominated British architecture from the mid-1720s to the early 1750s. It was rich and graceful, and there were Roman temple facades and pillars. In addition, a mathematical formulae was used for a building’s proportion. However, after 1750 (Dan Cruickshank, 2011) or from around 1760 (Worldguide, 2015), English architects James Stuart, Sir William Chambers and Scottish architect Robert Adam were exposed to a clearer style of classicism around Britain. They were inspired by the archaeological discoveries at Pompei and Herculanium. This new information about Greek and Roman architecture brought about a neoclassical revolution in taste. This emphasises on neoclassicism that became more widespread for design for the duration of the mid-Georgian period, which was until 1800 (Dan Cruickshank, 2011). Early Georgian style: Examples James Stuart One of the best examples of neoclassicism is James Stuart (1713-1788). He went on various â€Å"Grand Tours† of many European cities like other architects at that time. While he was studying in Greece, his work was inevitably influenced by clear Greek motifs. Due to these studies, he got the nickname â€Å"Athenian† Stuart. In addition, he published â€Å"Antiquities of Athens† in separate books from 1762. (Worldguide, 2015) On the picture below shows an example of his work: (St James’s Square, London) Sir William Chambers Sir William Chambers (1723-1796) is one of the architects representing the mid-Georgian period. He was born in Sweden to Scottish parents. His architectural practise was in London in the 1750s. Moreover, Sir William spent time in China, which gives an explanation why his neoclassicism was mixed with Chinese touches and elements. The name of the technique is known as chinoiserie, and it enjoyed modest popularity in Britain that time. He also showed Greek and Roman characteristics of French neoclassicism. (Worldguide, 2015) (Chinese Pagoda in Kew Gardens, London and Somerset House, London) Robert Adam One more example is Robert Adam (1728-1992). He was born in Fife, Scotland. He worked with his brother James on a style airier than the Palladian, using Egyptian and Gothic motifs with Roman decorations. His artworks were symmetrical but not as much as Palladian proportions. Furthermore, he was known to show motifs as â€Å"ribbons, wreaths, sphinx and griffins, ovals and hexagons etc†. This style was famous as the Adam style. (Worldguide, 2015) (Syon House, West London) Late Georgian style Late Georgian style is known as Regency and was popular during the reign of the British Prince Regent from 1811 to 1820. (The Editors of Britannica, 2015 and Worldguide, 2015) Actually, the Regency style recollected neoclassical elements, but it was opened more to Greek, Egyptian, Asian and French influences than it was before. This style is much heavier in ornamentation than earlier Georgian styles, and building facades were often covered with stucco plaster than noticeable brick. Moreover, interiors were more open and light, and windows became larger. In my personal opinion, the Regency style (Late Georgian style) is akin to a bridge between early Georgian design and approaching Victorian era. Henry Holland For instance, Henry Holland (1745-1806) was the most leading architect of the late Georgian period. (Worldguide, 2015) Holland’s designs was influenced by Roman, Greek and Egyptian forms and the Empire styles of late 18th century France as well. His style is simpler and more academic. (Sloane Street and Sloane Square, West London) Features of Georgian style Landscape There are many characteristics defining the Georgian period. One of the main features is terrace. The 18th century (David Ross, 2015) was a time of great success of urban developments. Houses had a public and private function. Unfortunately, it meant that there was a need to put a lot of houses into a small space. It lead to the creation of the terrace. The terrace allowed a whole street to have a sense of architectural completeness, also keeping small sizes of houses. Terraces used to take a few forms; typically laid out in straight lines or in quadrangles around a central garden area, or in curves or oval â€Å"circuses†. In addition, these developments gave birth of the townhouses practical housing built in lengthy, well-ordered terraces, which made boulevard look like neat architectural elements. (Worldguide, 2015) These townhouses were usually four levels in height and made of brick. However, during that period (18th century) the rich were increasingly wealthier and as a result, they began investing money into their households. Wealthy landlords used their huge land to create designed parks, and those parks were called â€Å"country houses†. (David Ross, 2015) These estates were full of reproductions of classical temples and additional architectural pieces: grottoes, bridges, and that group of fragments called â€Å"follies†. Basically, these parks carried on the classical philosophy. Architecture Furthermore, there are other common architectural elements, such as symmetrical form, classical entrances, glass fanlights, large four-sided rooms, sash windows, huge exterior symmetrical stairways, internal hall stairway, pediment door and geometric decorations. (DesignIntuit, 2001) Shape is a main significant feature of this style. The square is â€Å"prominent† (DesignIntuit, 2001), and shapes are classical. The foundation of Georgian proportion was usually geometrical, with the central block of the building â€Å"often augmented by hyphens and wings† (Wentworthstudio, 2015) Homes were only symmetrical. There was not usually an even number of windows (five across for house). This did not allow asymmetry around the middle window of the building. Sash windows –â€Å"panes divided by wooden bars† (Worldguide, 2015) – were common. In addition, windows were quadrilateral (DesignIntuit, 2001) and had the same width (Worldguide, 2015). However, their height was various from the first floor to the last one. Second floor windows were the tallest ones, while ground floor and third floor windows were shorter, and the windows on the top were almost four-sided. Every Georgian house door is groundwork and supported by monuments. (DesignIntuit, 2001) There was a window on the top of the door, and it was separated by a structure called a transom. (Worldguide, 2015) There was typically a hip roof, sometimes with dormers. It was very popular with Christopher Wren. Moreover, a more asymmetrical gable roof would be inappropriate at all. (Wentworthstudio, 2015) Interior design and decorative arts In the Georgian period, there was a significant rise in popularity with regards to interior decoration. (Britannica,2015) When you look at Georgian interiors, think about those architectural elements that are inside – large furnace and doorways, and well-balanced proportioned rooms. In addition to architecture and interior design, there were great achievements in the decorative arts. For instance, furniture design met many styles and approaches, ranging from the classical influence, to the straight and simple lines etc. Conclusion Sadly, that period could not last. Victorian morality transformed architecture and other designs because their idea was about adopting gothic style as a national one due to the fact that it was a native design for the Great Christian Empire of Britain. (Dan Cruickshank, 2011) To sum up, the Georgian period, especially architecture left many masterpieces and a variation of styles and ideas. Moreover, the cities and urban quarters created that time (Bath and Bloomsbury in London) are still models of comfortable urban living. Bibliography â€Å"Georgian Style†, David Ross, 2015 (http://www.britainexpress.com/architecture/georgian.htm) â€Å"The Georgian Style of British Colonial Annapolis†, DesignIntuit, 2001 (http://www.designintuit.com/issue0002/focus/ghistory.html) â€Å"The Georgian Era of Great Britain†, Worldguide, 2015 (http://www.worldguide.eu/wg/index.php?StoryID=148ArticleID=21368) â€Å"Georgian architecture: a classical re-education†, Dan Cruickshank, 2011 (http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/sep/11/georgian-architecture-british) â€Å"Historic styles: Georgian style†, Wentworthstudio, 2015 (http://www.wentworthstudio.com/historic-styles/georgian/) â€Å"Georgian architecture†, Britannica, 2015 (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/230322/Georgian-style) 1 Fast Dissolving Drug Delivery Systems: A Brief Overview Fast Dissolving Drug Delivery Systems: A Brief Overview 1.1 Introduction to fast dissolving drug delivery system Fast dissolving drug delivery systems have rapidly gained acceptance as an important new way of administering drugs. There are multiple fast-dissolving OTC and Rx products on the market worldwide, most of which have been launched in the past 3 to 4 years. There have also been significant increases in the number of new chemical entities under development using a fast-dissolving drug delivery technology. Rapidly dissolving dosage forms have acquired great importance in the pharmaceutical industry because of their unique properties. Rapidly dissolving dosage forms are also called quick-dissolving delivery systems; quick-disintegrating, orally disintegrating, mouth dissolve dosage forms; or melt-in-mouth dosage forms. However, the function and concept of all these dosage forms are similar. In less than one minute, these dosage forms disintegrate or dissolve in the salivary fluids of the oral cavity, releasing the drug and inactive ingredients. Most of the drug is swallowed with the saliva where subsequent absorption takes place in the gastrointestinal tract. By definition, a solid dosage form that dissolves or disintegrates quickly in the oral cavity, without the need for the administration of water, is known as an oral fast-dissolving dosage form. Salient Features of Fast Dissolving Drug Delivery System Ease of administration for patients who are mentally ill, disabled and uncooperative. Requires no water Quick disintegration and dissolution of the dosage form. Overcomes unacceptable taste of the drugs. Can be designed to leave minimal or no residue in the mouth after administration and also to provide a pleasant mouth feel. Allows high drug loading. Ability to provide advantages of liquid medication in the form of solid preparation. Adaptable and amenable to existing processing and packaging machinery Cost- effective [5-9]. 1.2 Characteristics of Fast Dissolving Delivery System [5] 1.2.1 Ease of administration Fast Dissolving Delivery Systems are easy to administer and handle hence, leads to better patient compliance. Usually, elderly people experience difficulty in swallowing the conventional dosage forms (tablets, capsules, solutions and suspensions) because of tremors of extremities and dysphasia. Fast Dissolving Delivery Systems may offer a solution for these problems. 1.2.2 Taste of the medicament As most drugs are unpalatable, mouth dissolving delivery systems usually contain the medicament in taste masked form. Delivery systems dissolve or disintegrate in patients mouth, thus releasing the active ingredients which come in contact with the taste buds and hence, taste masking of the drugs becomes critical to patient compliance. 1.2.3 Hygroscopicity Several fast dissolving dosage forms are hygroscopic and cannot maintain physical integrity under normal condition from humidity which calls for specialized product packaging [10].  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.2.4 Mouth feel Mouth feel is critical, and patients should receive a product that feels pleasant. Any large particles from the disintegrating tablet that are insoluble or slowly soluble in saliva would lead to an unpleasant gritty feeling. This can be overcome by keeping the majority of the particles below the detectable size limit. In some cases, certain flavors can imbibe an improved mouth feel perception, resulting in a product that is perceived as being less gritty, even if the only change is the flavor. Effervescence can be added to aid disintegration and improve mouth feel by reducing the dryness of a product [11, 12]. 2. Introduction to fast dissolving oral thin film. 2.1 Definition Thin film drug delivery is a process of delivering drugs to the systemic circulation via a thin film that dissolves when in contact with liquid, often referred to as a dissolving film or strip. Thin film drug delivery has emerged as an advanced alternative to the traditional tablets, capsules and liquids often associated with prescription and OTC medications. Similar in size, shape and thickness to a postage stamp, thin film strips are typically designed for oral administration, with the user placing the strip on or under the tongue or along the inside of the cheek. As the strip dissolves, the drug can enter the blood stream enterically, ducally or sublingually. The first commercial non-drug product to use thin films was the Listerine PocketPaks breath freshening strips. Since then, thin film products for other breath fresheners, as well as a number of cold, cough, flu and anti-snoring medications, have entered the marketplace. There are currently several projects in development that will deliver prescription drugs utilizing the thin film dosage form [13]. 2.2 Advantages of fast dissolving oral thin film The design of thin film, often referred to as Pharm Film, as an oral drug delivery technology offers several advantages over other modes of drug delivery, such as ingestible tablets, chewable tablets, orally dissolving tablets, softgels, liquids or inhalants[14]. The sublingual and buccal delivery of a drug via thin film has the potential to improve the onset of action, lower the dosing, and enhance the efficacy and safety profile of the medicament. All tablet dosage forms, softgels and liquid formulations primarily enter the blood stream via the gastrointestinal tract, which subjects the drug to degradation from stomach acid, bile, digestive enzymes and other first pass effects. As a result, such formulations often require higher doses and generally have a delayed onset of action. Conversely, buccal and sublingual thin film drug delivery can avoid these issues and yield quicker onsets of action at lower doses. Thin film is more stable, durable and quicker dissolving than other conventional dosage forms. Thin film enables improved dosing accuracy relative to liquid formulations since every strip is manufactured to contain a precise amount of the drug. Thin film not only ensures more accurate administration of drugs but also can improve compliance due to the intuitive nature of the dosage form and its inherent ease of administration. These properties are especially beneficial for pediatric, geriatric and neurodegenerative disease patients where proper and complete dosing can be difficult. Thin films ability to dissolve rapidly without the need for water provides an alternative to patients with swallowing disorders and to patients suffering from nausea, such as those patients receiving chemotherapy. Thin film drug delivery has the potential to allow the development of sensitive drug targets that may otherwise not be possible in tablet or liquid formulations. From a commercial perspective thin film drug delivery technology offers an opportunity to extend revenue lifecycles for pharmaceutical companies whose drug patent is expiring and will soon be vulnerable to generic competition. Advantages of Oral Thin Film Thin elegant film Convenient dosing Fast disintegration Enhance stability Quick dissolving Improve patient compliance Rapid release Life cycle management mucoadhesion Taste masking unobstructive No risk of choking Various sizes and shapes No water needed 2.3 Need for fast dissolving thin film drug development 2.3.1 Taste masking An important aspect of thin film drug delivery technology is the masking of the often bitter and poor taste of drug formulations[14].One method of taste-masking is encapsulation, the coating of drug particles with a polymeric covering sufficient to mask the taste of the drug particle while maintaining the ability to release the drug for absorption. Encapsulation is an efficient method for combining a high ratio of drug-to-non-drug elements in the taste-masked particle. Another method is the use of an ion exchange resin to bind the drug, forming a resinate that is less bitter than the drug alone. Shivang Chaudhary,final year M.S.Pharm student of Indian NAtional Institute of Pharmaceutical Education Research (NIPER) has formulated Taste masked Quick melting oral strip(QMOS) for quick onset of erection, in which they got success in bitter taste masking of sildenfil citrate via its inclusion complexation within B-Cyclodextrin by simple kneading method. 2.3.2 Drug content uniformity Drug content uniformity is a requirement for all dosage forms, particularly those containing low dose highly potent drugs. To uniquely meet this requirement, thin film formulations contain uniform dispersions of drug throughout the whole manufacturing process[15].Since this criteria is essential for the quality of the thin film and final pharmaceutical dosage form, the use of Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM) was recommended to follow the manufacturing process[16]. 2.3.3 Avoiding drug degradation Sensitive drugs may degrade over time in an aqueous environment. Thin film formulations must ensure that the integrity of the drug remains constant over time [17]. To overcome these challenges, developers of thin film have created highly specialized unique and often proprietary processes to deliver drugs on thin film [18]. 2.4 Functionality of oral thin film Pharmaceutical companies and consumers alike have embraced OTFs as a practical and accepted alternative to traditional OTC medicine forms such as liquids, tablets, and capsules. OTFs offer fast, accurate dosing in a safe, efficacious format that is convenient and portable, without the need for water or measuring devices [19]. OTFs are typically the size of a postage stamp and disintegrate on a patients tongue in a matter of seconds for the rapid release of one or more APIs. The formulation of dissolvable films is customarily facilitated through aqueous polymer matrices that span a wide molecular weight (MW) range, thereby providing flexibility to achieve certain physical properties. With the selection of appropriate polymer excipients, these properties can be tailored to meet specific API-loading needs and dissolution rates. To date, the commercial launch of OTFs is primarily in OTC products addressing therapeutic categories such as cough/cold, sore throat, and antacid/gas relief as well as a number of nutritional supplement applications [19]. In compliance with the appropriate monographs, current products deliver a specified API dose that is immediately released and ingested. Some drug forms are more easily used in OTFs than others (soluble versus non soluble), but we can expect API concentrations to increase as new OTF formulations are developed. The capabilities of the base technology to create dissolvable films continue to evolve. For example, a common misconception of the OTF format is that it is limited with regard to the loading capacity of APIs. Some researchers reference a limit of 30 mg of API content as the maximum concentration. A more accurate statement would be that OTFs have the capability to load APIs up to 50% of the unit dose mass, as demonstrated by Novartis Consumer Healths Gas-X thin film, which contains 62.5 mg of simethicone per dose [20]. Some drug substances may be absorbed more rapidly through the oral mucosal and esophageal tissues via OTF formats during ingestion. Because the drug enters directly into the bloodstream and avoids hepatic first-pass metabolism, bioavailability may be improved, and the drug can be administered in smaller doses. Smaller doses translate to fewer side effects and potentially improved patient compliance. Oral mucosal delivery via OTFs could become a preferential delivery method for therapies in which rapid absorption is desired, including those used to manage pain, allergies, sleep difficulties, and central nervous system disorders. Functional film properties controlled during manufacturing Thickness Width Drug concentration residual volatiles tensile strnth disintegration rates dissolution rates 2.5 oral thin film as Strategic therapeutic categories OTF formats can be considered for any therapeutic category in which an oral solid, liquid, or ODT format is currently offered. Ideal applications are those that use drug compounds that are potent and possess a narrow therapeutic range [21]. In addition, OTFs are proven to be a more beneficial platform for compromised populations such as children or the elderly where a quick, well-tolerated platform aids administration [22]. From a strategic standpoint, a group of therapeutic categories stand out as leading applications for the OTF format to expand beyond commercial OTC products on the market today (see sidebar, Strategic therapeutic categories for oral thin films). Development of a branded prescription OTF product for smoking cessation would set a precedent for the format, much like the launch of transdermal drug delivery patches for smoking cessation did in the 1990s. Strategic therapeutic categories for oral thin films Contraception Hormone replacement Pain management Allergy and asthama Nausea Central nervous system disorders Anti-inflammatory Gastro-intestinal Sleep aids Veterinary medicines and vitamins 3. Drugs availability in market as a film/strip The use of thin-film strips is of growing interest in the pharmaceutical sector following the success of Listerine PocketPaks ® in the United States. Thin-film strip technology uses a range of water-soluble polymers and is reported to be able to incorporate watersoluble, insoluble, or taste-masked ingredients. The film is manufactured as a continuous sheet and then cut into individual doses prior to packing. The major limitations to this technology are the relatively low doses that can be accommodated (approximately 30 mg) and its moisture sensitivity thus requiring specific unit-dose packaging to protect the product and ensure shelf life. Thin-film technology has primarily been used in over the- counter (OTC) products. 4. Market trends TCIs report also details the technology programs of 25 companies active in the development of Orally-Disintegrating Tablet technologies and 17 active in the development of Oral Film technologies. Technology Catalysts forecasts the market for drug products in oral thin film formulations to be valued at $500 million in 2007 and could reach $2 billion by 2010. The first oral strip was developed by Pfizer (New York) as a mouth freshening product (Listerine pocket packs). Chloraseptic Relief Strips (distributed by Prestige Brands, Irvington, NY), Theraflu Thin Strips treat the most common symptoms of a cold in adults and children 12 and older and will be available in two cherry-flavoured treatment options: Long Acting Cough that quiets coughs for up to eight hours, and Multi-Symptom that, as well as tackling coughs, is said to provide temporary relief from a runny nose and sneezing, and soothes itchy, watery eyes and throat. Both will cost approximately $5.49 for a 12-strip pack. Meanwhile, Triaminic Thin Strips, for children ages 6-12, will also be available in two treatment options: Long Acting Cough that quiets coughs for up to eight hours, in cherry flavor, and Cough Runny Nose, in grape flavour. They will cost approximately $5.99 for a 16-strip pack, according to Novartis. 5. Formulation consideration 5.1. film forming polymer A variety of polymers are available for preparation of OS. The polymers can be used alone or in combination to obtain the desired strip properties. The film obtained should be tough enough so that there wont be any damage while handling or during transportation. The robustness of the strip depends on the type of polymer and the amount in the formulation [23]. On the other hand, fast dissolving strip dosage formshould have the property to disintegrate in seconds when placed in mouth and deliver the drug to the oral cavity instantaneously. A list of polymers and their properties are given in Table 5 [24-30]. As the strip forming polymer (which forms the platform for the OS) is the most essential and major component of the OS, at least 45%w/w of polymer should generally be present based on the total weight of dry OS [31]. Of the various polymers available, pullulan, gelatin and hypromellose are most commonly used for preparation of OS. Pullulan is a natural polymer obtained from non-animal origin and does not require chemical modification. This polymer provides highly clear and homogenous films. It has low oxygen permeability and low water content which makes it most suitable for production of OS [32]. Many times, mixtures of polymers are used to improve hydrophilicity, flexibility, mouth-feel and solubility characteristics of OS. Polyvinyl pyrrolidone films are brittle in nature and therefore copovidone is mixed with poly vinyl pyrrolidone for preparation of flexible fast disintegrating strips [33]. Combination of microcrystalline cellulose and maltodextrin has been used to formulate OS of piroxicam made by hot melt extrusion technique. In this case, microcrystalline cellulose is used to render the film non-sticky and smooth [34]. Microcrystalline cellulose was also used to decrease the disintegration time and improve the dissolution of drug from the OS [35]. Property of polymer non-toxic non-irritant devoid of leachable impurities good wetting property spreadability property readily available Should not be very expensive Should exhibit sufficient peel, shear and tensile strengths. Various polymers can be employed to modulate the disintegration property of the oral strip. This is especially used in case of slowly disintegrable oral bioadhesive strips or patches that need to be retained in intact form for longer duration in the oral cavity. The bioadhesive polymer used in such formulations imparts the adhesive property to the strip such that it adheres to buccalmucosa to deliver the drug for prolonged period. Bioadhesive polymer should ideally adhere quickly to the buccal mucosa and should have sufficient mechanical strength. Polymers used for OS should have good shelf life and they should not aid in causing secondary infections in the oral mucosa or dental regions. It would be ideal to have a polymer that would have local enzyme inhibition action along with penetration enhancing property. The details of properties of bioadhesive or mucoadhesive polymers and their applications are discussed elsewhere [36-43]. Mucoadhesive polymers include polycarbophil, cellulos e derivatives like hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, poly(acrylic acid) derivatives, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxylethyl cellulose, hyaluronic acid, xanthan gum, locust bean gum, guar gum, carrageenan, sodiumalginate, chitosan, poly(ethylene oxide), poly (ortho esters), poly (hydroxyl butyrate), poly(cyano acrylates), polyphosphazenes, poly (vinyl alcohol) etc. Second generation mucoadhesive polymers include thiolated polymers. They are multifunctional polymers consisting of hydrophilic macromolecules having free thiol groups on the polymer backbone. The polymer forms disulfide bonds with cysteine-rich subdomains of mucus glycoproteins. Corium International has developed a new class of adhesive hydrogels (Corplex„ ¢) [44]. There are a number of marketed products available that are based on mucoadhesion phenomena. Oramoist ® is a Timed Release oral disk that adheres to the roof of the mouth and has a moisturizing effect for about 4 h [44]. It is recommended for dry mouth syndrome (xerostomia). Compeed ® is another formulation that is intended to treat cold sore [46]. Table Polymer: Hydoxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) Synonym:  Methocel, Metolose,  Benecel  (Hypromellose) Description: It is a odorless, tasteless and white or creamy white fibrous or granular powder Molecular weight: 10,000-1,500,000 Solubility:  Soluble in cold water,forming a viscous colloidal  solution, insoluble in  chloroform, ethanol Polymer:  Hydroxy propyl cellulose Synonym:  Hydroxyl propyl ether,  hyprolose, Klucel, Nisso HPC. Description:  It is a white to slightly yellow  colored, odorless and  tasteless powder. It is stable  material Molecular weight:  50,000-1,250,000 Solubility:  It is freely soluble in water  below 38  °C forming a  smooth, clear, colloidal  solution. Hydroxypropyl  cellulose is soluble in many  cold and hot polar organic  solvents such as absolute  ethanol, methanol, isopropyl  alcohol and propylene glycol Polymer:  Starch and modified starch Synonym:  Amido, amylum, PharmGel,  Fluftex W, Instant pure-Cote,  Melogel etc. Description:  It is an odorless, tasteless,  fine, white powder. Molecular weight:  50,000-160,000 Solubility:  It is insoluble in cold  water and ethanol. It swells in  water by about 5 to 10% at  37  °C Polymer:  Pullulan Synonym:  Pullulane, 1, 6 ÃŽÂ ± linked  maltotriose Description:  It is available as white,  odorless tasteless, stable  powder Molecular weight:  8000-2,000,000 Solubility:  It is soluble in hot as well as  cold water Polymer:  Pectin Synonym:  Citrus pectin, Methopectin,  pectin, pectinic acid   Description:  It occurs as a yellowishwhite,  odorless powder with  mucilaginous taste. Molecular weight:  30,000-100,000 Solubility:  It is soluble in water but  insoluble in most of the  organic solvents. Polymer:  Gelatin Synonym:   Byco, cryogel, Instagel,  Solugel Description:  It occurs as light amber to  faintly yellow colored,  vitreous, brittle solid. It is  ordorless, tasteless. Molecular weight:  15,000-250,000 Solubility:  Soluble in glycerin, acid and  alkali. Swells in water and  softens. It is soluble in hot  water Polymer:  Carboxy methyl cellulose Synonym: Akulell, Blanose, Aquasorh Description:  It is white, odorless powder Molecular weight:  90,000-700,000 Solubility: It is easily dispersed in water  to form a clear or colloidal  solution 5.2 Plasticizer Plasticizer is a vital ingredient of the OS formulation. It helps to improve the flexibility of the strip and reduces the brittleness of the strip. Plasticizer significantly improves the strip properties by reducing the glass transition temperature of the polymer. The selection of plasticizer will depend upon its compatibility with the polymer and also the type of solvent employed in the casting of strip. The flow of polymer will get better with the use of plasticizer and enhances the strength of the polymer [47, 48]. Glycerol, Propylene glycol, low molecular weight polyethylene glycols, phthalate derivatives like dimethyl, diethyl and dibutyl phthalate, Citrate derivatives such as tributyl, triethyl, acetyl citrate, triacetin and castor oil are some of the commonly used plasticizer excipients. Typically the plasticizers are used in the concentration of 0-20%w/w of dry polymer weight [49-57]. However inappropriate use of plasticizer may lead to film cracking, splitting and peeling of the strip [58-60]. It is also reported that the use of certain plasticizers may also affect the absorption rate of the drug [61]. 5.3 Active pharmaceutical ingredient The active substance is may be from any class of pharmaceutically active substances that can be administered orally or through the buccal mucosa, respectively. The OS technology has the potential for delivery of variety of APIs. However since the size of the dosage form has limitation, high dose molecules are difficult to be incorporated in OS. Generally 5%w/w to 30%w/w of active pharmaceutical ingredients can be incorporated in the OS [62]. Multivitamins up to 10%w/w of dry film weight was incorporated in the OS with dissolution time of less than 60 s [32]. APIs can also be added as milled, micronized or in the form of nanocrystals or particles depending upon the ultimate release profile desired. It is always useful to have micronized API which will improve the texture of the film and also for better dissolution anduniformity in the OS [63]. Some of the examples of suitable drug molecule that can be incorporated in the OS are listed in table-6. 5.4 sweetening agent Sweeteners have become the important part of the food products as well as pharmaceutical products intended to be disintegrated or dissolved in the oral cavity. Natural sweeteners as well as artificial sweeteners are used to improve the palatability of the mouth dissolving formulations. Sweetening agent such as Sugar, dextrose, lactose, mannitol, sucrose, xylitol, malitol, acesulfame potassium, talin, glycyrrhizin, sucralose, aspartame, saccharin etc. The classical source of sweetener is sucrose (derived from cane or beet in the form of liquid or dry state), dextrose, fructose, glucose, liquid glucose and maltose. The sweetness of fructose is perceived rapidly in the mouth as compared to sucrose and dextrose. Fructose is sweeter than sorbitol and mannitol and thus used widely as a sweetener. The artificial sweeteners have gained more popularity in food and pharmaceutical preparations. Saccharin,cyclamate and aspartame are the first generation of the artificial sweeteners followed by acesulfame-K, sucralose, alitame and neotame which fall under the second generation artificial sweeteners. Acesulfame-K and sucralose have more than 200 and 600 time sweetness. Neotame and alitame have more than 2000 and 8000 time sweetening power as compared to sucrose. Rebiana which is a herbal sweetener, derived from plant Stevia rebaudiana (South American plant) has more than 200-300 time sweetness [64].The flavor quality of these artificial sweeteners is different than the natural sweeteners and may not be acceptable to the patients who are accustomed to the natural sugars. The amalgamation of sweeteners may lead to synergismand improvement in the taste of the formulations [65]. Aspartame was used for the preparation of oral strips of valdecoxib [66]. For the oral strip of piroxicam, mal todextrin was employed as  sweetening agent [67]. Generally sweeteners are used in the concentration of 3 to 6 %w/w either alone or in combination [68]. 5.5 flavoring agent Perception for the flavors changes from individual to individual depending upon the ethnicity and liking. The selection of flavor is also dependant on the type of drug to be incorporated in the formulation. For example, mint flavor is generally added in products used for gastric related ailments like indigestion. The acceptance of the oral disintegrating or dissolving formulation by an individual by and large depends on the initial flavor quality which is observed in first few seconds after the product has been consumed and the after taste of the formulation which lasts for at least about 10 min [69]. Flavoring agents can be selected from synthetic flavor oils, oleo resins, extract derived from various parts of the plants like leaves, fruits and flowers. Flavors can be used alone or in the combination. Peppermint oil, cinnamon oil, spearmint oil, oil of nutmeg are examples of flavor oils while vanilla, cocoa, coffee, chocolate and citrus are fruity flavors. Apple, raspberry, cherry, pineapple are few examples of fruit essence type. The amount of flavor needed to mask the taste depends on the flavor type and its strength. Preferably up to 10%w/w flavors are added in the OS formulations. Cooling agents like monomethyl succinate can be added to improve the flavor strength and to enhance the mouth-feel effect of the product. Other cooling agents likeWS3, WS23 and Utracoll II can also be used in conjunction with flavors [68, 70]. 5.6 coloring agent Coloring agents may include FD C coloring agents, natural coloring agents, and natural juice concentrates, pigments such as titanium oxide, silicon dioxide and zinc oxide. (not exceeding concentration levels of 1%w/w) in OS .when some of the formulation ingredients or drugs are present in insoluble or suspension form [71,72]. 5.7 stabilizing and thickening agent The stabilizing and thickening agents are employed to improve the viscosity and consistency of dispersion or solution of the strip preparation solution or suspension before casting. Natural gums like xanthan gum, locust bean gum, carragenan and cellulosic derivatives can be used in the concentration up to 5%w/w as thickening agents and stabilizing agents [68]. Other ingredients such as surfactants and emulsifying agents are also added in small amount to improve the strip properties. 5.8 saliva stimulating agent The purpose of using saliva stimulating agents is to increase the rate of production of saliva that would aid in the faster disintegration of the rapid dissolving strip formulations. Generally acids which are used in the preparation of food can be utilized as salivary stimulants. Citric acid, malic acid, lactic acid, ascorbic acid and tartaric acid are the few examples of salivary stimulants, citric acid being the most preferred amongst them. These agents are used alone or in combination between 2 to 6%w/w of weight of the strip. Other OS ingredients such as sweeteners also act as salivary stimulants. Food grade sugars as well as synthetic sugars are useful salivary stimulants along with acidulents. Glucose, fructose, xylose, maltose, lactose are few examples of such sweeteners [73]. The resting salivary flow rate was 0.34 ml/min .but citric acid is capable to increase the salivary flow rate up to 1.68ml/min [73]. 6. Method of manufacturing of oral thin film One (or a combination) of the following processes may be used to manufacture the oral films [74]. Solvent casting Hot-melt extrusion Solid dispersion extrusion Rolling 6.1 Solvent Casting The oral film is preferably formulated using the solvent-casting method, whereby the water-soluble ingredients are dissolved to form a clear viscous solution. The API and other agents are dissolved in smaller amounts of the solution, and combined with the bulk. This mixture is then added to the aqueous viscous solution. The entrapped air is removed by vacuum. The resulting solution is cast as a film and allowed to dry, which is then cut into pieces of the desired size. Water-soluble hydrocolloids used to prepare films are: hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), pullulan, sodium alginate, pectin and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) [75]. 6.2 Hot melt extrusion Hot melt extrusion (HME) is commonly used to prepare granules, sustained-release tablets, transderm